The adverse effects of lead, including learning and behavioral disorders (e.g., attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), hearing impairment, decreased intelligence quotient, and decreased attention span, are particularly harmful in children and often become apparent during puberty-long after exposure. Lead is a particularly troublesome environmental pollutant as there is increasing evidence that lead is associated with negative health effects even at levels far below thresholds previously considered safe. However, research has found that the associations between lead and health and behavioral outcomes are also heavily confounded by low socioeconomic status. And lead exposure has been positively related to housing age, and inversely to housing value, median per capita income, and other socioeconomic factors. Due to its widespread use in leaded gasoline, paint, and plumbing systems–lead is linked to housing characteristics. Claudio, Tulton, Doucette, and Landrigan reported a strong relationship between hospital admission rates for asthma and low median household income and speculated that poor housing conditions, environmental exposures (indoor allergens and passive cigarette smoke), and lack of access to preventive health care may have contributed to the higher rates of asthma in some of the neighborhoods they studied.Įnvironmental exposure to lead is one such housing variable that remains a major public health concern. For example, in a paper on income inequality and its effect on morbidity, Soobader and LeClere noted the substantial body of research which demonstrates that the physical and social characteristics of where people live make an independent contribution to health, rather than serving as a surrogate for individual level data. Over the past several decades, the literature that associates both housing and neighborhood characteristics with negative health outcomes has grown. Childhood maltreatment has been linked to increased risk of living in neighborhoods with less desirable characteristics and higher levels of economic disadvantage. Child maltreatment represents a major public health problem in the United States and abroad, with lasting impacts on health, social, and economic functioning. More than 3.5 million children were referred for possible maltreatment in fiscal year 2017, the most recent statistics available. The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of this manuscript.Ĭompeting interests: No authors have competing interests. Nikulina’s work was supported in part by a grant from the national Institute of General Medical Sciences (1SC2GM125547). Requests can be addressed to: CUNY Research Compliance Administrator: 64 or CUNY Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research, Attn: Research Compliance Administrator, 205 East 42nd Street, New York, NY 10017.įunding: This research was supported in part by grants to Dr. Data access requests require a concept paper describing the purpose of data access, ethical approval at the applicant’s university in writing, and provision for secure data access. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.ĭata Availability: Data cannot be shared publicly due to ethical restrictions. Received: ApAccepted: SeptemPublished: November 24, 2020Ĭopyright: © 2020 Carpi et al. Borrell, Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy, City University of New York, UNITED STATES Citation: Carpi A, Nikulina V, Li X, Widom CS (2020) Childhood maltreatment and lead levels in middle adulthood: A prospective examination of the roles of individual socio-economic and neighborhood characteristics.
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